The study takes an anthropological perspective on a globalized political environment – more particularly on the fields of global environmental governance and development cooperation and their interplay with national and local arenas and actors. I offer an anthropological account of the rise of the global environmental governance agenda, of the international arenas where it has been generating debates and joint decisions, and of their consequences for national politics and local resource management regimes in the Global South. Furthermore, this study contributes observations and findings on how ideas, discourses, and processes at different scales affect the emergence and change of local institutions. The connecting thread underlying my account is based on the way in which natural resource management concepts and models emerge on the international scene of water experts, policy-makers, and practitioners, and how the models travel between international, national, regional, and local scales, being translated and transformed during their travelling. Having applied the concept of travelling models previously elaborated by a group of anthropologists and other social scientists to my particular case, to the field work I did, and to the documents I collected, I draw some conclusions from my own experiment, following ethnographically a travelling model of community-based water management across scales and between locations. The main contribution of the study at hand is to devise and refine ways of grasping the dynamics behind discourses and blueprint-like models at different scales, conceptually and methodologically. My account serves to demonstrate the potential of the travelling models approach in ethnography and anthropological analysis, especially by focusing on the travelling of a particular model for local behaviour in situations of connectivity between actors from different spheres and scales, and in interactions of representatives of the state with civil society organizations and of both of these with local individuals and groups. This study meets the challenge of not only concentrating on the local consequences of global tendencies as others have done before, but also of applying the toolbox of anthropological methods to scenarios where ‘the global’ becomes tangible, and to the spaces of connectivity, movement, and friction in between the different scales. In so doing, the aim has been to also test the theoretical paradigm of ‘travelling models’ based on researchers from STS and ANT, and applied to other ethnographic contexts more recently by a group of mainly Germany-based anthropologists, and to identify some of the advantages and limitations it has to offer. I demonstrate by an exemplary case how such a standardized model for the management of rural water supply, prescribed by the state and introduced at the water points by a group of external actors, emerges from and is influenced by discourses and actors at the national and global level. For Namibia, a new set of standardized management institutions was introduced in a blueprint-like manner to groups of water users through a national reform programme and through various development interventions starting in the 1990s. My analysis focuses on institutions that regulate the management and supply of water in Namibia’s rural areas, and more particularly in Kunene Region – and in similar ways in many other countries in the Global South. The historical perspective provided on prominent ideas and concepts in the water-management sector in the colonial past informs the account of present-day water management institutions and practice, because these historical concepts have shaped the emergence and travelling of the community based water management model in question. Key findings The establishment of the Namibian community-based water management (CBWM) model is shaped by global discourses which 1) conceive of water as a scarce resource per se; 2) have led to approaches of water governance following the idea of a ‘hydraulic mission’, augmenting water supply as part of a state-run ‘environmental engineering’ approach; 3) having realized that the hydraulic mission had failed to lead to increased sustainable water supply, have advocated ideas of participation, decentralization, and demand-orientation as guarantors of sustainability and equality, as well as of cost efficiency in the realm of water management. These ideas are actively propagated by NGOs and state actors in Namibia and elsewhere within the framework of community meetings, institutional blueprints, and training guidelines. The decentralization program’s success is measured by the same actors implementing and monitoring the CBWM model, and they evaluate their achievements according to the extent to which the water-point user associations implement their own developed rules and water point constitutions. Pending further analysis I would state from the information gathered among established WPAs that the CBWM-related component did not quite lead to the outcomes that the Ministry would have called for. The major criteria, defined by the WPA model constitution, which the national water administration usually takes into account when assessing the functionality of a WPA, include regular WPC and WPA meetings, regular collection of user fees; financial and management-related reporting, and the adherence to management plans and budgets adopted upon establishment of the WPA. Many of these criteria were not met in most of the places I visited. At the same time, however, only a few of the WPAs visited reported any shortcomings in terms of accessibility of sufficient quantities of water. In a nutshell, water in these places seems to be managed in a generally reliable and satisfactory way for local users, even though WPAs do not comply with the official management rules introduced by the state. That is not to say that other important criteria, such as satisfactory water quality, or ‘fairness’ (in terms of the water fees postulated by the state’s facilitators and by the user groups) are being met. The situation reveals the picture of a complex and costly administration and implementation process around a model for which it has not been established whether its guidelines suit the living conditions of the rural water users. While one of the underlying motivations of reforming the rural water supply sector starting in the 1990s was to mitigate the detrimental effects that a century of colonization and Apartheid rule had had on the society and the environment, questions such as for instance: ‘Is there any distributional justice in regard to the access to water?’, or ‘Is water affordable for all?’, are not currently priority matters of discussion in Namibia’s water sector or politics. To some extent, this might have to do with the fact that the actors involved have significant vested interest in the decentralization program continuing as it is, such as retaining employment in the public administration, decentralized presence in the local communities, political influence, and voters’ consent; yet it would be worthwhile to (re-)evaluate these and other aspects of the CBWM measures. In the meantime, the debate around the human right to water and sanitation is ongoing. Even five years after this right was officially declared by the UN in July 2010, its supporters still claim that generally not enough is being done, or not enough of the right things are being done, in order to enforce it worldwide. Another continuing debate is the longstanding confrontation and sometimes probably fruitful engagement of supporters of the idea that water as a public, common good should be managed publicly in order to ensure equitable access and sustainability, and proponents of the idea of water as an economic good and commodity, which ought to be managed based on commercial principles. The fifteen years of global action for the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) between 2001 and 2015 included the target of halving the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation which shaped many of the discourses this study sheds light on. The 193 UN member states who adopted the new set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) following up on the MDGs in September 2015 have decided to include an independent water-related goal which aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all by 2030. I hope that some of the content discussed here may be of interest not only to scientists, but also to people working in and on the water-sector in other ways towards achieving this SDG.
Encounters at the Water Point – An Ethnography of the Travelling Model of Community-based Water Management and its Application to Rural Water Supply in Namibia.
Köln: Institut für Ethnologie der Universität, Diss., 2016.